Women in psychology - Women in psychology (1900-1950), 1951-2000 and 21st century

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Women in psychology (1900-1950)

The early 20th century was a pivotal time for women in psychology. Despite facing significant discrimination and barriers, a generation of pioneering women made substantial contributions to the field. 

Here's a glimpse into the lives and contributions of some of these influential women:

Challenges and accomplishments

• Discrimination: Many faced obstacles such as being denied degrees they rightfully earned or finding it difficult to secure academic positions, according to Verywell Mind.
• Pioneering Spirit: Despite the challenges, women played an integral role in shaping modern psychology.
• Early Leaders: Psychology was actually among the sciences most open to women in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. 

Notable women and their contributions

• Mary Whiton Calkins: She is remembered for developing the paired association technique and pioneering self-psychology. Harvard University refused to grant her a doctorate solely due to her gender, but she persevered and became the first female president of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1905.
• Margaret Floy Washburn: She was the first woman to earn a PhD in psychology in America (1894) and the second woman elected president of the APA (1921). Her work focused on animal cognition and influenced comparative psychology.
• Anna Freud: The youngest daughter of Sigmund Freud, she expanded upon her father's work and founded child psychoanalysis. She made important contributions to our understanding of the ego and defense mechanisms, according to Verywell Mind.
• Karen Horney: A German-American psychoanalyst, she challenged Freud's theories, particularly his ideas about women. She focused on social and cultural factors in psychological development and is considered a founder of feminist psychology.
• Melanie Klein: This Austrian-British psychoanalyst is known for her work in play therapy and developing the theory of object relations.
• Leta Stetter Hollingworth: She contributed to research on intelligence and gifted children and challenged prevailing stereotypes about women's intellectual capabilities.
• Mamie Phipps Clark: The first Black woman to receive a degree from Columbia University, she researched the effects of segregation on children and played a crucial role in the landmark Brown v. Board of Education case. Her doll studies showed the damaging impact of segregation on children's self-esteem. 

Impact and legacy

These women, and many others, helped pave the way for future generations of women in psychology. Their research and activism challenged gender norms, advanced our understanding of human behavior, and made the field more inclusive and representative. 

Women in psychology: 1951-2000

The latter half of the 20th century witnessed a continued surge of women entering the field of psychology and making groundbreaking contributions across various subfields, often fueled by the burgeoning second-wave feminist movement. These women not only excelled in research and academia but also actively challenged existing biases and pushed for greater inclusivity within the discipline. 

Here are some notable women and their contributions during this period:

1. Advancing research and theory

• Mary Ainsworth: A prominent developmental psychologist, Ainsworth made significant contributions to our understanding of attachment styles between children and caregivers. Her "Strange Situation" procedure is still widely used to assess attachment patterns, highlighting the impact of early relationships on later behavior.
• Eleanor Maccoby: A Stanford University professor, Maccoby was a pioneer in the study of gender differences in child development. Her research explored how biological and social factors contribute to these differences, according to Stanford News. She was the first to wear a pantsuit as a female lecturer at Stanford, symbolizing a shift in societal expectations and challenging traditional norms, according to UO Counseling Services.
• Brenda Milner: A world-renowned neuropsychologist, Milner's research on the effects of temporal lobe damage in humans, including the famous patient H.M., revolutionized our understanding of memory and the brain.
• Elizabeth Loftus: Her groundbreaking work on the misinformation effect and the malleability of memory significantly impacted the fields of cognitive psychology and legal psychology. She demonstrated how leading questions and post-event information can distort eyewitness testimony, leading to important reforms in the justice system. 

2. Promoting diversity and challenging the status quo

• Florence Denmark: A founding member of the Association for Women in Psychology (AWP) in 1969, Denmark championed research on issues like violence, prejudice, stereotyping, ethnicity, and gender. She also served as president of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1980.
• Martha Bernal: The first woman of Mexican descent to earn a PhD in psychology in the USA, Bernal's research focused on human psychophysiology, Latino psychology, and minority mental health issues.
• Naomi Norsworthy: A pioneer in the field of childhood mental testing and mental deficiency.
• Gail Wyatt: The first African-American woman to be licensed as a psychologist in California, Wyatt's research highlighted the impact of factors like childhood sexual abuse, sexual assault, and STDs on women, particularly African-American women. She also testified before the United States Congress on health policy issues and earned the APA Award for Distinguished Contribution to Research in Public Policy in 1992.
• Susan Tufts Fiske: Her research on stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination, particularly their causal nature, proved influential in psychology and social justice. She also testified before the U.S. Supreme Court on gender bias and consulted with President Clinton's Race Initiative Advisory Board. 

3. Developing new approaches and therapies

• Feminist Therapy: This form of psychotherapy emerged during this period, focusing on helping individuals understand and challenge restrictive gender roles and cultural expectations. It emphasizes valuing women's experiences and acknowledging the impact of societal structures on mental health, according to Talkspace.
• Carol Gilligan, Linda Silverman, and Sharon Conarton: These therapists challenged the male-centric bias in traditional developmental theories, arguing for the importance of valuing feminine traits like relationality and sensitivity in psychological development. 

The contributions of these women, and many others, in the latter half of the 20th century were instrumental in shaping the trajectory of psychology, leading to more inclusive and diverse perspectives, research, and therapeutic approaches. They paved the way for a deeper understanding of human behavior across different genders, cultures, and backgrounds. 

Women in psychology in the 21st century

In the 21st century, women have continued to solidify their strong presence in psychology, building upon the foundational contributions of earlier generations. They are now the majority of students entering the field, comprising 76% of new psychology doctorates and 74% of early career psychologists. 

Notable women and their contributions

• Carol Dweck: Known for her groundbreaking work on mindset, Dweck, a psychology professor at Stanford University, studies motivation and how people's beliefs about their abilities affect their performance.
• Angela Duckworth: A professor at the University of Pennsylvania, Duckworth's research focuses on grit and self-control, aiming to understand the non-cognitive skills that contribute to success.
• Leda Cosmides: Recognized for her integral role in developing evolutionary psychology, Cosmides applies evolutionary principles to understand human thought and behavior.
• Laurie R. Santos: A Yale professor and cognitive scientist, Santos directs the university's Comparative Cognition Laboratory and Canine Cognition Lab. She's also known for her work on happiness and cognitive biases, presented in popular online courses and lectures.
• May-Britt Moser: A Norwegian psychologist and neuroscientist, Moser, alongside her former husband, Edvard Moser, shared a portion of the 2014 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries concerning the brain's internal navigation system. 

Shifting dynamics and continuing challenges

• Increased Representation: Women now constitute a significant majority within psychology, from undergraduate studies to doctoral programs. In the early 1900s, only 1 in 10 psychologists were women. Today, women make up 65% of all psychologists, a significant increase from 57% in 2007.
• Gender Gap in Leadership: Despite their numerical strength, women remain underrepresented in leadership positions within academia and research. In 2020, women constituted 40.8% of first authors and 36.7% of last authors in psychology and psychiatry publications, indicating that the transition to senior authorship is slower for women compared to men.
• Gender Stereotypes in Leadership: Studies show that traditional gender stereotypes still influence the perception and evaluation of leaders. Leaders are often associated with masculine traits, potentially hindering women's advancement into leadership roles.
• Social Media and Women's Mental Health: Research in the 21st century highlights the significant and often negative impact of social media on women's mental health, affecting self-esteem and body image. Passive use of social media and social comparison have been linked to increased psychological anxiety in young women, according to ScienceDirect.com.
• Mental Health Challenges for Women: Women are more likely to experience certain mental health conditions, including depression and anxiety, and may face unique challenges due to societal expectations, hormonal fluctuations, and experiences of gender-based violence. Research from emocare suggests that women psychologists in India are addressing these challenges by promoting culturally sensitive frameworks and advocating for women's mental health needs.
• Intersectionality: The concept of intersectionality, which explores the interplay of various social and identity factors (e.g., gender, race, socioeconomic status), is gaining increasing recognition in psychology research and clinical practice to understand and address the unique experiences of diverse groups of women. 

The 21st century has seen women emerge as a dominant force in psychology, making significant contributions across diverse areas of the field. However, challenges related to leadership opportunities, gender bias, and the impact of social and cultural factors remain. The increasing focus on intersectionality promises to further expand our understanding of the complex experiences of women in psychology and society as a whole.